PTCB Test Section-Based Practice Questions

Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver.

Hepa- is the prefix for “liver-related” and “-itis” is the suffix that denotes inflammation.

Gastritis is inflammation of the stomach lining.

Dyspepsia is also known as indigestion; a feeling of fullness and discomfort after eating.

Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder.

Hyponatremia is a condition that refers to low sodium levels.

Diuretic medicines can cause hyponatremia. Certain conditions can, too, such as severe vomiting as well as many heart and kidney conditions.

Hypokalemia refers to low potassium; hypocalcemia refers to low calcium; and hypoglycemia refers to low blood sugar levels.

The prefix hypo- always refers to low levels.

Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. The body’s own immune system attacks the cells needed to generate insulin. As a result, patients must inject insulin to make up the difference.

Examples: insulin aspart, lispro, glulisine, and degludec.

In contrast, type 2 diabetes is caused when the body doesn’t make enough insulin and where the body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin. Type 2 diabetes is most commonly caused by lifestyle factors, such as obesity.

Antidiabetic drugs used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes include metformin, sitagliptin, and canagliflozin.

PDE5 inhibitors are drugs used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction; a condition characterized by an inability to develop or sustain an erection.

Examples: sildenafil, vardenafil, and tadalafil.

Edema, also known as swelling or fluid build-up, is caused by the accumulation of fluid in the body’s tissues.

For example, patients with heart failure may present with edema in the legs. Patients with significant liver damage may develop edema in the belly area.

Diuretic medicines are effective in the treatment of edema because diuretics promote fluid loss from the body.

Uric acid build-up (hyperuricemia) inside joints is the cause of gout.

Drugs used in the treatment of gout include allopurinol, colchicine, rasburicase, and probenecid.

Bursitis refers to inflammation of fluid-filled sacs that protect joints.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a condition in which the immune system attacks joints throughout the body.

Osteoporosis is a bone disease where bone strength decreases over time, increasing the risk of bone damage and fracture.

osacea is a long-term inflammatory condition that affects the skin, often causing reddening and facial flushing.

Allergic rhinitis is inflammation of the inside of the nose caused by an allergen, causing allergy-type symptoms.

Epistaxis is a nosebleed.

Peptic ulcers are ulcers that develop inside the stomach lining.

Tachycardia refers to an elevated heart rate – typically defined as a heart rate higher than 100 bpm (beats per minute).

Tachy- is the prefix that means fast, whereas -cardia is the suffix that denotes a relationship to the heart.

Conversely, a slow heart rate is known as bradycardia – brady- being the prefix that refers to slow.

Normal blood pressure is around 120 / 80 mmHg.

Hypotension (low blood pressure) is lower than 90 / 60 mmHg.

Hypertension (high blood pressure) is 140 / 90 mmHg or higher (some systems define it as higher than 130 mmHg, though).

Stage 2 hypertension is anything greater than 160 / 100 mmHg.

Therefore, with a reading of 142 / 91 mmHg, the patient can be described as having hypertension.

PID = Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
PID is caused by an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs; a complication often caused by some STDs such as chlamydia and gonorrhea.

GERD = Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

MS = Multiple Sclerosis

BPH = Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (enlarged prostate in men).

Candida albicans is a yeast that causes thrush infections; infections that can occur anywhere on the body.

For example: vaginal thrush is common in women and may present as itchiness, stinging, or burning sensations accompanied by discharge.

Antifungal drugs – such as clotrimazole – are effective at treating thrush infections.

Melanoma is a type of skin cancer; chickenpox is caused by the virus, Varicella zoster; whereas impetigo is a skin infection caused by bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pyogenes.

Insomnia is a condition where patients find it difficult to fall or stay asleep.

Drugs used in the short-term treatment of insomnia include zopiclone, eszopiclone, zolpidem, and benzodiazepines.

Short-term treatment is essential to prevent patients becoming physically dependent on the medicines.

COPD = Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

COPD is a chronic lung disease characterized by restricted airflow and breathing difficulties. It increases the risk of infections including chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Drugs used in the treatment of COPD include beta-2 agonists and corticosteroids.

Graves’ disease is a form of hyperthyroidism where the body’s own immune system attacks the thyroid gland with antibodies, causing the thyroid gland to produce too much thyroid hormone.

Drugs used in the treatment of Graves’ disease include propylthiouracil and methimazole.

TJC – or The Joint Commission – is responsible for accrediting and certifying healthcare organizations in the United States.

The TJC inspects pharmacies during each accreditation survey, whilst also inspecting medication management standards to ensure that commitments to patient safety is held to the highest standards.

OBRA – or Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act, 1990 – established the protocol to require pharmacies that fill orders for Medicaid patients to obtain, record, and maintain basic patient information.

This is a vital protocol, as it’s something that directly impacts the role that pharmacy technicians play today – namely, maintaining complete patient profiles.

USP 797 states that pharmacy personnel who compound low-to-medium risk level sterile products must be evaluated every year on their aseptic technique

Enacted in 1963, the Kefauver-Harris Amendment placed prescription drug advertising under FDA supervision.

The legislation also required drug manufacturers to register and permit inspections of their drug manufacturing sites.

Enacted in 1970, the Poison Prevention Packaging Act was passed to ensure that medicines were developed in child-resistant packages; to guarantee that medicines are sufficiently challenging that children cannot open them.

USP 800 sets standards in hazardous drug handling for patients, healthcare workers, and the environment.

The purpose is to establish standards that minimize exposure to hazardous drugs to workers in healthcare settings.

The Drug Listing Act, 1972, established the protocol that drugs are identified and reported using the National Drug Code (NDC).

The NDC code is a unique 10 or 11-digit number assigned to each drug. There are three segments – labeler code, product code, and commercial package size code. For example: 0777 – 3105 – 02.

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) were a product of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1970.

MSDS are forms completed by compound manufacturers to provide detailed commentary on chemical components. For example, details include hazards (such as the degree of flammability) and whether the substance has cancer-causing potential (carcinogenic).

The active ingredient of Ambien is zolpidem, a drug used for the short-term treatment of insomnia.

It is a Schedule IV drug. Other Schedule IV drugs include benzodiazepines and tramadol.

Opioid analgesics are known to cause miosis, pupillary constriction – not dilation (mydriasis).

Other side effects of opioids include respiratory depression, dry cough, constipation, itch, and drowsiness.

Opioids include drugs such as tramadol, morphine, codeine, and dihydrocodeine.

ACE inhibitors – such as lisinopril and ramipril – can increase bradykinin levels in the lung. This can cause many patients to develop a persistent, dry cough.

Other side effects of ACE inhibitors include hypotension and hyperkalemia (elevated potassium levels).

Patients who are finding the cough difficult to tolerate are often switched to an angiotensin-receptor blocker drug, such as candesartan or losartan.

Side effects of tetracyclines include tooth discoloration, enamel hypoplasia, and photosensitivity.

Other adverse effects of tetracyclines include nausea, vomiting, hypersensitivity reactions, and esophageal irritation.

Examples of tetracyclines include doxycycline, tetracycline, and minocycline.

Side effects of beta-blockers include cold extremities, fatigue, impotence (in men), and nightmares (only some beta-blockers cause nightmares, such as propranolol).

Dizziness and lightheaded-ness are also common side effects.

Beta-blockers include drugs such as bisoprolol, labetalol, and metoprolol.

Statins are drugs used to lower LDL cholesterol levels, whilst increasing good cholesterol (HDL cholesterol).

Side effects include muscle pain, myopathies – and in rare cases, rhabdomyolysis, where muscle itself breaks down.

Other side effects of statins include headache, elevated liver enzymes, and an increased risk of developing diabetes type 2.

Statins include drugs such as atorvastatin, simvastatin, and lovastatin.

Metformin is a drug used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

Side effects include a metallic taste, lactic acidosis, and – through long-term use – vitamin B12 deficiency.

Other side effects of metformin include weight loss and gastrointestinal disturbances.

Alendronic acid is a bisphosphonate drug; a drug class used in the management of bone disorders such as osteoporosis and Paget’s disease of bone.

Side effects include esophagitis, low phosphate levels, and osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ).

Other bisphosphonates include zoledronate and pamidronate.

Ciprofloxacin is an antibacterial drug that belongs to the fluoroquinolone class.

Fluoroquinolones are associated with an increased risk of muscle tendon inflammation and rupture.

Co-prescription with prednisolone increases the risk of tendon rupture.

Other fluoroquinolones include moxifloxacin and levofloxacin.

Tadalafil is the active ingredient of Cialis; a medicine used to treat erectile dysfunction in men.

Tadalafil works by inhibiting the PDE5 enzyme – phosphodiesterase type 5. Inhibition of this enzyme causes vasodilation and hypotension. This vasodilatory effect is what contributes to increased penile blood flow.

Other PDE5 inhibitors include sildenafil (Viagra) and vardenafil (Levitra).

Note the common suffix of PDE5 inhibitors – “-afil”.

Vitamin K is essential for normal blood coagulation and blood clotting.

Warfarin interferes with this blood clotting process by inhibiting the enzyme, vitamin K epoxide reductase. This is what leads to the anticoagulant effects of warfarin and its efficacy in treating and preventing conditions such as deep vein thrombosis.

Warfarin is the active ingredient of medicines such as Coumadin and Jantoven.

Famotidine is a H2 receptor antagonist used in the treatment of conditions caused by excess gastric acid production – such as heartburn and gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD).

Famotidine is the active ingredient of the medicine, Pepcid.

The other three drugs – chlorpheniramine, azelastine, and loratadine – are all H1 receptor antagonists. H1 antagonists are used in the symptomatic treatment of allergies.

Beta-2 agonists are the most widely prescribed drug class for patients who suffer from asthma.

Beta-2 receptors are found in the lungs.

Remember the beta receptor location memory tool; “beta-2 – 2 lungs” – in contrast to “beta-1 – 1 heart”. Activation of beta-2 receptors relaxes smooth muscle in the lungs, helping patients with asthma to breathe easier.

Examples of beta-2 agonists include albuterol, levalbuterol, formoterol, and salmeterol.

Osteoclasts are cells that break down old bone.

Bisphosphonates are drugs that are absorbed into osteoclasts, slowing their activity. This makes bisphosphonate drugs effective in the treatment and prevention of bone disorders such as osteoporosis.

Examples of bisphosphonates include alendronate, ibandronate, and zoledronic acid.

Tetracyclines are widely prescribed antibacterial drugs that work via inhibition of protein synthesis.

Proteins are essential for many key functions within microbial cells. Tetracyclines inhibit this process, interrupting these key processes – leading to the destruction and death of the microorganism.

Examples of tetracycline antibacterial drugs include tetracycline, doxycycline, minocycline, and demeclocycline.

SGLT-2 inhibitors are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Examples include canagliflozin, empagliflozin, and ertugliflozin. Note the common suffix they share – namely, “-flozin” – which is very useful in helping to identify this drug class.

SGLT-2 inhibition increases glucose elimination in urine.

Statins are drugs used in the treatment and prevention of high blood cholesterol, or hypercholesterolemia.

Examples include simvastatin, atorvastatin, and lovastatin.

Statins work by inhibiting the enzyme, HMG-CoA reductase – an essential enzyme involved in the cholesterol production pathway.

Benzodiazepines are among the most prescribed medicines in the United States – and are used to treat a wide range of conditions; from insomnia to epilepsy to anxiety.

Benzodiazepines work by enhancing the effect of GABA – an inhibitory neurotransmitter that has an electrically calming effect throughout the brain.

There are two major types of GABA receptor: GABA A and GABA B. Benzodiazepines work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of GABA at the GABA A receptor.

Alpha blockers are used in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia; a condition primarily affecting older men that causes an increase in size of the prostate gland. This makes it more difficult to urinate normally.

Alpha blockers specifically block the alpha-1 receptor. This causes smooth muscle relaxation, which makes it easier for affected patients to urinate.

Doxazosin is an example of an alpha blocker; and is the active ingredient of the medicine Cardura.

Other drugs in this class include alfuzosin, prazosin, and tamsulosin – note the common suffix “-osin”.

Alpha blockers can also be used in the treatment of hypertension.

Heartburn and stomach ulcers are caused by excess gastric acid production.

Proton-pump inhibitors are highly effective drugs used to treat conditions such as these. By blocking the proton-pump in cells of the stomach, it reduces gastric acid production.

Commonly prescribed and dispensed PPIs include omeprazole, esomeprazole, lansoprazole, and pantoprazole.

Note that PPIs always end in the suffix -prazole.

Metronidazole, trimethoprim, and levofloxacin are all antibacterial drugs.

However, ketoconazole is an antifungal agent – a member of the azole antifungal drug class.

Cisplatin is the active ingredient of Platinol.

Oxaliplatin is the active ingredient of Eloxatin.

Both Platinol and Eloxatin are platinum-based drugs used in cancer chemotherapy (note the common suffix -platin).

Metformin is a widely used drug in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

It is the active ingredient of the medicine, Glucophage (which translates from the Greek to mean “glucose eater”!)

Note that metformin can also be used in the treatment of PCOS, polycystic ovary syndrome.

HAART = Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy.

HAART is a combination of at least three antiviral drugs used in the management of HIV / AIDS.

Mometasone and budesonide are inhaled nasal corticosteroids used in the management of asthma / COPD.

Mometasone is the active ingredient of the medicines Asmanex and Nasonex.

Budesonide is the active ingredient of the medicines Pulmicort and Rhinocort.

Allopurinol is used to prevent gout – a condition caused by the build up of uric acid in joints. Allopurinol is the active ingredient of the medicine, Zyloprim.

Colchicine is used to treat an acute episode of gout, and the drug is the active ingredient of the medicines, Mitigare and Colcrys.

Other drugs used in the treatment or management of gout include rasburicase, pegloticase, probenecid, and NSAIDs.

Mirabegron is a drug used in the treatment of overactive bladder; a drug that works by activating beta-3 receptors in the bladder.

Mirabegron is the active ingredient of the medicine, Myrbetriq.

Levocetirizine is an antihistamine and the active ingredient of the medicine, Xyzal.

Raloxifene – a drug used to treat and prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women – is the active ingredient of Evista.

Atomoxetine – a drug used to treat ADHD – is the active ingredient of the medicine, Strattera.

Travoprost – a drug used to treat glaucoma – is the active ingredient of the medicine, Travatan.

Stat on prescriptions refers to “immediately”.

For sterile products, the beyond-use date must be included on the label.

pc refers to post cibum, the Latin for “after food”.

Subscription: instructions given to the pharmacist, such as the number of refills permitted, or whether a generic drug can be used in place of a branded drug.

PRN is the pharmacy term for “as needed”.

ud means “as directed”.

qd means “every day”.

ad means “right ear”.

Cyath. refers to “a glassful”.

Ung. refers to “ointment".

Lot. refers to “lotion”.

Syr. refers to “syrup”.

IIX is invalid.

To represent the number 8, the correct form is VIII.

You can only use one “I” before an X, not two.

XII = 12
IX = 9
XIII = 13

b.i.d. is the pharmacy acronym that refers to twice daily.

a.u. = both ears

cib. = food

qd. = every day

Amber containers are used to protect the medicine against the harmful effects of sunlight radiation.

When pulling up a patient profile, spell the entire surname first and then the first letter of the patient’s first name.

A list of names will come up and you can verify the patient by reviewing date-of-birth.

gtts = drops

ou is the key acronym here, which means “both eyes”.

Therefore, the medicine must be administered via the ocular route.

11 – the maximum number of refills permitted for non-controlled drugs.

Auxiliary labels are used to provide additional information about the safe and effective use of a medicine, including additional warnings such as avoid sunlight and may cause drowsiness.

All other answer options are mandated to be on prescriptions.

The prescription translates as follows: three capsules to be dispensed (ud = as directed) every 12 hours for 7 days.

Three capsules every 12 hours = 6 tablets per day.

6 capsules per day x 7 days = 42 capsules.

There is 15 mL in 1 tablespoon, meaning there is 30 mL in 2 tablespoons.

Given that each teaspoon contains 5mL, there must be 6 teaspoons to match the same volume as 2 tablespoons.

An expiration date of 09 / 2021 means that the medicine expires at the end of the stated month – so September 30, 2021.

The pharmacy abbreviation gtt refers to drop (from the Latin "guttae", drops) - as in eye drops or ear drops.

pr refers to “by the rectal route” and “HS” refers to “at bedtime”.

iii = 3

tabs = tablets

po = orally

ac = before meals

bid = twice daily

x 5d = for 5 days.

For a non-controlled substance prescription drug, the prescription is valid for up to 1-year from the date of issuance

D is the Roman numeral for 500. X is 10; I is 1; and V is 5.

Therefore, the total is 500 + 10 + (5-1) = 514

Normal saline is 0.9%.

Therefore, ½ NS is half that value, 0.45% concentration.

po (per os) is the pharmacy acronym that describes a medicine that needs to be taken via the oral route of administration.

The first 5 digits of an NDC code refer to the drug manufacturer.

The second set of 4 digits refers to drug product/strength.

The final 2 digits refers to package size.Which part of the NDC code refers to the manufacturer?First 2 digitsFirst 5 digitsSecond set of 4 digitsFinal 2 digits

The first 5 digits of an NDC code refer to the drug manufacturer.

The second set of 4 digits refers to drug product/strength.

The final 2 digits refers to package size.

The first 5 digits of an NDC code refer to the drug manufacturer.

The second set of 4 digits refers to drug product/strength.

The final 2 digits refers to package size.Which part of the NDC code refers to the manufacturer?First 2 digitsFirst 5 digitsSecond set of 4 digitsFinal 2 digits

The first 5 digits of an NDC code refer to the drug manufacturer.

The second set of 4 digits refers to drug product/strength.

The final 2 digits refers to package size.

Isosorbide mononitrate is the active ingredient of Imdur; and, as a nitrate medicine, it is used to dilate blood vessels and ease chest pain on exertion, referred to clinically as angina.

Lorazepam is the active ingredient of the medicine, Ativan.

Ativan is a benzodiazepine medicine used to treat seizures, anxiety, agitation, and insomnia. It may also be used in patients suffering from alcohol withdrawal symptoms.

Ethinyl estradiol and drospirenone are the active ingredients of the medicine, Yaz.

Yaz is a medicine used for birth control; a form of contraception used to prevent pregnancy.

Yaz can also be used to treat moderate acne in women (who are at least 14-years old) and who are having menstrual periods.

Clarithromycin is the active ingredient of the medicine, Biaxin.

Clarithromycin is a macrolide antibacterial drug. Other members of this class include erythromycin and telithromycin. Macrolide antibacterials work by inhibiting protein synthesis inside microbes.

Tetracycline is the active ingredient of the medicine, Sumycin.

Fluconazole is the active ingredient of the medicine, Diflucan.

Cefdinir is the active ingredient of the medicine, Omnicef.

Atenolol is a beta-blocker and the active ingredient of the medicine, Tenormin.

Tenormin is used to treat hypertension and angina (chest pain).

Both Levitra (vardenafil) and Cialis (tadalafil) are used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction.

They may also be used to treat pulmonary hypertension.

Both medicines work as PDE5 inhibitors (phosphodiesterase type 5).

Furosemide is the active ingredient of the medicine, Lasix.

Furosemide is a loop diuretic that promotes water and electrolyte loss from the body. For this reason, Lasix is used to treat edema (fluid build-up) and chronic heart failure.

Omeprazole is the active ingredient of the medicine, Prilosec; a drug that works as a proton-pump inhibitor.

As such, Prilosec is used to treat conditions that involve excess gastric acid production – such as dyspepsia and gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD).

Lisinopril is the active ingredient of the ACE inhibitor medicine, Prinivil.

Prinivil is an antihypertensive medicine used to lower blood pressure. It is also used to treat patients with chronic heart failure (CHF).

Simvastatin is the active ingredient of Zocor.

Amlodipine is the active ingredient of Norvasc.

Atorvastatin is the active ingredient of Lipitor.

Alprazolam is the active ingredient of the medicine, Xanax.

Alprazolam is a benzodiazepine used to treat anxiety and panic disorders.

Selegiline is an example of a MAO inhibitor (monoamine oxidase inhibitor).

Selegiline is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and major depressive disorder.

Note: patients taking certain MAO inhibitors are advised to avoid foods high in tyramine due to the risk of precipitating hypertensive crisis.

The daily purchase limit of pseudoephedrine is 3.6 grams (approximately a 15-day supply).

There is also a 9-gram per 30-day limit, too.

To purchase, the patient must present a government-issued identification and sign a logbook - usually electronic - which can be accessible by law enforcement at any time.

These limits remain in place to prevent illegal meth production.

The 'first-pass effect' refers to drug metabolism in which the concentration of an orally administered drug is reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation.

Put another way, orally administered drugs enter the GI tract where they are absorbed and pass through the liver.

The liver metabolises the drug, with the remaining drug entering the systemic bloodstream.

The first-pass effect refers to this phase of drug metabolism, where drug concentration falls due to metabolism in the liver.

The drug 'first passes' through the liver etc.

ACE inhibitors can cause a persistent, dry cough (due to a build-up of kinins in the lung).

Examples of ACE inhibitors include captopril, ramipril, lisinopril, and perindopril (any drug that ends in the suffix -pril is an ACE inhibitor).

ACE inhibitors are used in the treatment of cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension and heart failure.

Drugs that block the PDE5 enzyme (phosphodiesterase type 5 enzyme) are used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction.

Examples include sildenafil (Viagra) and tadalafil (Cialis) and vardenafil (Levitra).

Note: sildenafil and tadalafil are also effective in the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Note #2: PDE5 inhibitors can be identified as they all end in the suffix, -afil.

Sumatriptan is the active ingredient of the medicine, Imitrex - and is used in the treatment of migraines and cluster headaches.

Note: all drugs with the suffix -triptan are used to treat migraine (zolmitriptan, sumatriptan, rizatriptan).

Rabeprazole is the active ingredient of the PPI medicine, AcipHex.

Proton-pump inhibitors are used in the treatment of excess gastric acid production and treat conditions such as dyspepsia and GERD (gastro-esophageal reflux disease).

Note: all proton-pump inhibitors can be identified by the suffix -prazole (omeprazole, pantoprazole etc.).

Beta-blockers can cause bronchospasm in patients suffering from asthma.

Note: bronchospasm is when the airways (bronchial tubes) go into spasm and contract. This makes it very difficult for patients with asthma to breathe.

Beta-2 agonists are used to treat asthma (drugs such as albuterol, formoterol, and terbutaline).

Therefore, blockade of beta-receptors can oppose the effects of beta-2 agonists and cause bronchoconstriction.

Intrathecal drugs are administered into the spine.

Buccal drugs are administered into the space between the gum and cheek.

Intravesical drugs are administered into the bladder.

Intra-articular drugs are administered into joint spaces.

Tramadol is a Schedule IV controlled drug.

Schedule IV drugs are those classified as, "with a low potential for abuse and a low risk of dependence".

Other examples of Schedule IV drugs include Xanax, Soma, Valium, Ativan, and Ambien.

Histamine antagonists at the H1 receptor help relieve allergic symptoms - such as itch and hives and nasal congestion.

Examples: cetirizine, loratadine, fexofenadine, chlorpheniramine

Do not confuse H1 antagonists with H2 antagonists.

Unlike H1 antagonists, H2 antagonists are used to treat conditions caused by excess gastric acid production, such as indigestion (dyspepsia) and GERD. Cimetidine is an example of a H2 antagonists.

Penicillins (amoxicillin, ampicillin) and cephalosporins (ceftriaxone, cefazolin, cefpodoxime etc.) both contain the beta-lactam ring structure – a key and necessary structure for these drugs to exert their antibacterial therapeutic effects. Without the beta-lactam ring structure, these drugs are ineffective at fighting against bacterial infections.

The beta-lactam ring is a 4-membered ring that helps to confer antibacterial properties.

Bacteria can produce an enzyme, called beta-lactamase, that tries to break down this ring structure. The more beta-lactam rings destroyed, the more bacteria can flourish. This is one of the factors that leads to an increase in antibiotic resistance in these drugs.

Statins - such as simvastatin and atorvastatin and lovastatin - are used to treat elevated blood cholesterol, also known as hypercholesterolemia.

Statins work by inhibiting the enzyme, HMG-CoA reductase – a key enzyme in the mevalonate pathway of hepatic cholesterol production.